During the 1990s, Afghanistan's vast and mountainous province of Badakhshan was a bastion of resistance to the rule of the Taliban.
Now, the resource-rich region is again becoming a thorn on the side of the Islamist militant group, which regained power in the war-torn country almost five years ago.
Bordering Tajikistan, China, and Pakistan, Badakhshan has witnessed a spate of attacks in recent weeks. Experts say anti-Taliban armed groups are feeding off ethnic tensions, disputes over control of resources, and local grievances against the Taliban.
"The attacks could develop into a serious and persistent problem in Badakhshan, but they do not yet threaten Taliban rule nationally or point to the imminent loss of the province," said Ted Callahan, a former adviser to the US military in Badakhshan.
'Checkpoints Everywhere'
In the latest attack to hit the province, a local Taliban official was gunned down on July 28. Zabihullah Amiri, head of the provincial information and culture department, was killed by two men on motorbikes on a major road in Badakhshan, the Taliban said.
The attack was claimed by the Islamic State-Khorasan (IS-K) extremist group, which has posed the biggest threat to Taliban rule since 2021.
On July 17, a new opposition group, Sipahiyan-e Mihan (Soldiers of the Homeland Front) briefly seized control of the Yaftal-e Payeen district in Badakhshan. The group is believed to be led by Qayum Malang, an officer in the former Afghan Army.
Two other opposition groups, the National Resistance Front (NRF) and the Afghanistan Freedom Front (AFF), have also claimed attacks in the province's districts of Yaftal-e Payeen, Zebak, and Darayem in recent months.
In response, the Taliban has imposed new security measures and made arrests, locals said.
"Since the recent events here, severe restrictions have been imposed on the people," a resident of Yaftal-e Payeen, who spoke on condition of anonymity for security reasons, told RFE/RL's Radio Azadi.
"Here in Yaftal, a large number of Pashto-speaking brothers have also arrived, and they have transferred several longtime local [Taliban] to other areas."
A mostly Pashtun militant group dominated by clerics, the Taliban seized power in Kabul in August 2021 after previously ruling most of Afghanistan from 1996 until December 2001, when its regime collapsed following the US-led invasion. Since returning to power, it has monopolized authority and sidelined many of the country's ethnic and religious groups as well as political factions.
Badakhshan is made up predominately of ethnic Tajiks. Many Taliban commanders in Badakhshan are ethnic Tajiks, although that appears to be changing.
"There are checkpoints and searches everywhere," said the resident of Yaftal-e Payeen district. "The Taliban inspect people's phones. There are night patrols. They come and search people's homes without giving a reason."
Disputes Over Resources
Badakhshan is rich in natural resources, including gold, silver, and semiprecious stones.
The extraction of those minerals has intensified in recent years, and the Taliban's cash-strapped and unrecognized government has sought to centralize control over mining revenues. The move has fueled local resentment and infighting among Taliban commanders.
The Taliban's decision in 2022 to ban the production of opium -- a lifeline for impoverished farmers in much of the country -- has also triggered anger.
In 2024, protests broke out in Badakhshan over the Taliban's forceful enforcement of its ban on illicit drugs. The hard-line group violently clamped down on the rallies, shooting and killing several protesters and rounding up dozens of locals.
Since returning to power, the Taliban has also increasingly marginalized Afghanistan's Shi'ite religious minority, which makes up around 15 percent of the population. Badakhshan is home to a sizeable Ismaili Shi'a community.
"Poppy eradication campaigns, disputes over control of gold and lapis lazuli mines, restrictions over Ismaili communities and the Taliban's own differences --- Pashtun versus Tajik --- have created deep resentment among people and the opposition groups have cashed the opportunity," said Callahan.
'Continuing Insurgency'
Several small armed groups have waged a low-level insurgency against the Taliban, carrying out sporadic hit-and-run attacks and the assassination of Taliban officials.
Experts say the groups have not yet shown that they can recruit on a large scale, maintain dependable supply lines, unify their various fronts, or govern territory after capturing it. The Taliban, experts say, has advantages in personnel, transport, intelligence, and heavy weapons.
"The likeliest outcome is therefore a contained but continuing insurgency," said Callahan.
Sami Yousafzai, a London-based Afghan analyst, said the "anti-Taliban groups don't have the power to seize and hold areas." But he said the spike in attacks in Badakhshan have succeeded in denting the Taliban's "image of invincibility."
